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Model for understanding elemental particles

This article is about the historical models of the atom. For a history of the written report of how atoms combine to form molecules, see history of molecular theory. For the modern view of the atom which adult from atomic theory, see atomic physics.

The electric current theoretical model of the atom involves a dense nucleus surrounded by a probabilistic "cloud" of electrons

Atomic theory is the scientific theory that matter is equanimous of particles called atoms. Atomic theory traces its origins to an ancient philosophical tradition known every bit atomism. According to this idea, if one were to accept a lump of thing and cut it into e'er smaller pieces, i would eventually reach a bespeak where the pieces could not be further cutting into anything smaller. Ancient Greek philosophers called these hypothetical ultimate particles of matter atomos, a word which meant "uncut".

In the early 1800s, the scientist John Dalton noticed that chemical substances seemed to combine and break down into other substances by weight in proportions that suggested that each chemic element is ultimately made upwardly of tiny indivisible particles of consequent weight. Shortly after 1850, certain physicists developed the kinetic theory of gases and of heat, which mathematically modelled the behavior of gases by assuming that they were made of particles. In the early 20th century, Albert Einstein and Jean Perrin proved that Brownian motion (the erratic move of pollen grains in water) is caused by the action of water molecules; this third line of evidence silenced remaining doubts among scientists equally to whether atoms and molecules were real. Throughout the nineteenth century, some scientists had cautioned that the show for atoms was indirect, and therefore atoms might not really be existent, but simply seem to be real.

By the early 20th century, scientists had developed fairly detailed and precise models for the structure of thing, which led to more rigorously-defined classifications for the tiny invisible particles that make upwardly ordinary matter. An atom is now defined as the basic particle that composes a chemic element. Around the plough of the 20th century, physicists discovered that the particles that chemists called "atoms" are in fact agglomerations of even smaller particles (subatomic particles), but scientists kept the name out of convention. The term elementary particle is now used to refer to particles that are really indivisible.

History

Philosophical atomism

The idea that matter is made upwardly of detached units is a very old idea, actualization in many ancient cultures such as Greece and India. The word "atom" (Greek: ἄτομος ; atomos ), meaning "uncuttable", was coined by the Pre-Socratic Greek philosophers Leucippus and his pupil Democritus (c.460–c.370 BC).[one] [2] [3] [4] Democritus taught that atoms were space in number, uncreated, and eternal, and that the qualities of an object outcome from the kind of atoms that etch it.[two] [three] [4] Democritus's atomism was refined and elaborated by the after Greek philosopher Epicurus (341–270 BC), and past the Roman Gluttonous poet Lucretius (c.99–c.55 BC).[3] [4] During the Early Middle Ages, atomism was mostly forgotten in western Europe. During the 12th century, it became known once more in western Europe through references to it in the newly-rediscovered writings of Aristotle.[three] The opposing view of matter upheld past Aristotle was that matter was continuous and infinite and could be subdivided without limit.[5] [6]

In the 14th century, the rediscovery of major works describing atomist teachings, including Lucretius's De rerum natura and Diogenes Laërtius'southward Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers, led to increased scholarly attention on the subject. However, considering atomism was associated with the philosophy of Epicureanism, which contradicted orthodox Christian teachings, conventionalities in atoms was not considered acceptable by most European philosophers.[three] The French Catholic priest Pierre Gassendi (1592–1655) revived Epicurean atomism with modifications, arguing that atoms were created by God and, though extremely numerous, are not infinite. He was the first person who used the term "molecule" to describe aggregation of atoms.[3] [4] Gassendi's modified theory of atoms was popularized in French republic past the physician François Bernier (1620–1688) and in England by the natural philosopher Walter Charleton (1619–1707). The chemist Robert Boyle (1627–1691) and the physicist Isaac Newton (1642–1727) both defended atomism and, by the end of the 17th century, it had go accepted by portions of the scientific customs.[iii]

John Dalton

Near the finish of the 18th century, two laws most chemical reactions emerged without referring to the notion of an atomic theory. The starting time was the police force of conservation of mass, closely associated with the piece of work of Antoine Lavoisier, which states that the full mass in a chemical reaction remains abiding (that is, the reactants have the same mass every bit the products).[vii] The second was the law of definite proportions. Outset established past the French pharmacist Joseph Proust in 1797 this law states that if a compound is cleaved down into its constituent chemic elements, so the masses of the constituents will always have the same proportions by weight, regardless of the quantity or source of the original substance.[8]

John Dalton studied and expanded upon this previous work and dedicated a new idea, later known as the police of multiple proportions: if the same 2 elements can be combined to form a number of different compounds, then the ratios of the masses of the two elements in their various compounds will be represented past modest whole numbers. This is a common pattern in chemical reactions that was observed by Dalton and other chemists at the time.

Example 1 — tin oxides: Dalton identified ii oxides of can. One is a grey powder in which for every 100 parts of can in that location is thirteen.5 parts of oxygen. The other oxide is a white pulverisation in which for every 100 parts of tin there is 27 parts of oxygen.[9] 13.5 and 27 course a ratio of 1:2. These oxides are today known as can(Two) oxide (SnO) and can(IV) oxide (SnO2) respectively.

Example 2 — iron oxides: Dalton identified two oxides of iron. I is a black powder in which for every 100 parts of fe there is most 28 parts of oxygen. The other is a carmine powder in which for every 100 parts of iron there is 42 parts of oxygen.[x] 28 and 42 form a ratio of 2:3. These oxides are today known as iron(Two) oxide (ameliorate known equally wüstite) and iron(Iii) oxide (the major constituent of rust). Their formulas are FeO and FetwoO3 respectively.

Instance 3 — nitrogen oxides: There are three oxides of nitrogen in which for every 140 g of nitrogen, there is fourscore g, 160 g, and 320 g of oxygen respectively, which gives a ratio of one:2:4. These are nitrous oxide (Northward2O), nitric oxide (NO), and nitrogen dioxide (NO2) respectively.

This recurring pattern suggested that chemicals practise not react in any arbitrary quantity, but in multiples of some bones indivisible unit of mass.

In his writings, Dalton used the term "atom" to refer to the basic particle of any chemical substance, non strictly for elements as is the practice today. Dalton did not use the discussion "molecule"; instead, he used the terms "compound atom" and "unproblematic atom".[11] Dalton proposed that each chemical element is equanimous of atoms of a unmarried, unique blazon, and though they cannot exist altered or destroyed by chemical ways, they can combine to form more complex structures (chemical compounds). This marked the first truly scientific theory of the atom, since Dalton reached his conclusions by experimentation and examination of the results in an empirical fashion.

In 1803 Dalton referred to a list of relative diminutive weights for a number of substances in a talk before the Manchester Literary and Philosophical Order on the solubility of various gases, such every bit carbon dioxide and nitrogen, in water. Dalton did not indicate how he obtained the relative weights, but he initially hypothesized that variation in solubility was due to differences in mass and complexity of the gas particles – an thought that he abased past the time the paper was finally published in 1805.[12] Over the years, several historians have attributed the evolution of Dalton's atomic theory to his report of gaseous solubility, but a recent report of his laboratory notebook entries concludes he developed the chemical diminutive theory in 1803 to reconcile Cavendish'due south and Lavoisier'due south belittling data on the limerick of nitric acid, non to explain the solubility of gases in water.[13]

Thomas Thomson published the first cursory account of Dalton'south atomic theory in the third edition of his book, A Organization of Chemical science.[xiv] In 1808 Dalton published a fuller account in the first part of A New System of Chemical Philosophy.[xv] Nevertheless, it was not until 1811 that Dalton provided his rationale for his theory of multiple proportions.[16]

Dalton estimated the atomic weights co-ordinate to the mass ratios in which they combined, with the hydrogen cantlet taken as unity. Nonetheless, Dalton did non conceive that with some elements atoms exist in molecules—eastward.g. pure oxygen exists every bit O2. He besides mistakenly believed that the simplest compound between any ii elements is always one atom of each (then he thought water was HO, non H2O).[17] This, in addition to the crudity of his equipment, flawed his results. For case, in 1803 he believed that oxygen atoms were five.5 times heavier than hydrogen atoms, because in h2o he measured v.5 grams of oxygen for every 1 gram of hydrogen and believed the formula for water was HO. Adopting ameliorate information, in 1806 he concluded that the atomic weight of oxygen must actually exist 7 rather than five.5, and he retained this weight for the rest of his life. Others at this time had already concluded that the oxygen atom must weigh 8 relative to hydrogen equals 1, if one assumes Dalton's formula for the water molecule (HO), or 16 if i assumes the modern h2o formula (H2O).[18]

Avogadro

The flaw in Dalton'southward theory was corrected in principle in 1811 past Amedeo Avogadro. Avogadro had proposed that equal volumes of any two gases, at equal temperature and pressure, contain equal numbers of molecules (in other words, the mass of a gas'due south particles does non affect the volume that it occupies).[19] Avogadro's police force immune him to deduce the diatomic nature of numerous gases by studying the volumes at which they reacted. For instance: since two liters of hydrogen volition react with only i liter of oxygen to produce two liters of water vapor (at constant pressure and temperature), it meant a single oxygen molecule splits in two in order to form two particles of water. Thus, Avogadro was able to offer more accurate estimates of the atomic mass of oxygen and various other elements, and made a clear distinction between molecules and atoms.

Brownian Move

In 1827, the British botanist Robert Dark-brown observed that dust particles inside pollen grains floating in h2o constantly jiggled about for no apparent reason. In 1905, Albert Einstein theorized that this Brownian motion was caused past the h2o molecules continuously knocking the grains almost, and developed a hypothetical mathematical model to describe it.[twenty] This model was validated experimentally in 1908 by French physicist Jean Perrin, thus providing additional validation for particle theory (and past extension atomic theory).

Statistical Mechanics

In society to introduce the Ideal gas law and statistical forms of physics, information technology was necessary to postulate the existence of atoms. In 1738, Swiss physicist and mathematician Daniel Bernoulli postulated that the pressure of gases and heat were both acquired by the underlying motion of molecules.

In 1860, James Clerk Maxwell, who was a song proponent of atomism, was the outset to employ statistical mechanics in physics.[21] Ludwig Boltzmann and Rudolf Clausius expanded his piece of work on gases and the laws of Thermodynamics especially the second law relating to entropy. In the 1870s, Josiah Willard Gibbs, sometimes referred to as America'due south greatest physicist,[22] extended the laws of entropy and thermodynamics and coined the term "statistical mechanics." Einstein later on independently reinvented Gibb's laws, because they had only been printed in an obscure American journal.[23] Einstein later commented, had he known of Gibb's work he would "not have published those papers at all, simply confined myself to the treatment of some few points [that were distinct]."[24] All of statistical mechanics and the laws of heat, gas, and entropy were necessarily postulated upon the beingness of atoms.

Discovery of subatomic particles

The cathode rays (bluish) were emitted from the cathode, sharpened to a beam by the slits, so deflected as they passed between the two electrified plates.

Atoms were thought to be the smallest possible division of matter until 1897 when J. J. Thomson discovered the electron through his work on cathode rays.[25]

A Crookes tube is a sealed drinking glass container in which two electrodes are separated by a vacuum. When a voltage is practical across the electrodes, cathode rays are generated, creating a glowing patch where they strike the glass at the contrary stop of the tube. Through experimentation, Thomson discovered that the rays could exist deflected by an electric field (in addition to magnetic fields, which was already known). He concluded that these rays, rather than being a form of light, were composed of very light negatively charged particles he chosen "corpuscles" (they would later be renamed electrons by other scientists). He measured the mass-to-charge ratio and discovered it was 1800 times smaller than that of hydrogen, the smallest atom. These corpuscles were a particle unlike any other previously known.

Thomson suggested that atoms were divisible, and that the corpuscles were their edifice blocks.[26] To explain the overall neutral accuse of the atom, he proposed that the corpuscles were distributed in a uniform bounding main of positive accuse; this was the plum pudding model[27] as the electrons were embedded in the positive charge like raisins in a plum pudding (although in Thomson'southward model they were not stationary). The reason J.J. Thompson's spherical positive accuse model interspersed with negative electrons was most widely accepted over several different versions of nuclear planetary models was that the Thompson model could best align with classical physics. Solar arrangement models proposed before Thompson always resulted in electrons spiraling into the nucleus.[28]

Discovery of the nucleus

The Geiger–Marsden experiment
Left: Expected results: alpha particles passing through the plum pudding model of the atom with negligible deflection.
Correct: Observed results: a pocket-size portion of the particles were deflected by the concentrated positive accuse of the nucleus.

Thomson's plum pudding model was disproved in 1909 by one of his quondam students, Ernest Rutherford, who discovered that most of the mass and positive charge of an atom is concentrated in a very small fraction of its book, which he assumed to exist at the very eye.

Ernest Rutherford and his colleagues Hans Geiger and Ernest Marsden came to have doubts about the Thomson model after they encountered difficulties when they tried to build an musical instrument to measure the accuse-to-mass ratio of alpha particles (these are positively-charged particles emitted by certain radioactive substances such equally radium). The alpha particles were being scattered past the air in the detection chamber, which fabricated the measurements unreliable. Thomson had encountered a similar problem in his work on cathode rays, which he solved by creating a virtually-perfect vacuum in his instruments. Rutherford didn't think he'd run into this same problem because alpha particles are much heavier than electrons. Co-ordinate to Thomson's model of the atom, the positive charge in the atom is not concentrated plenty to produce an electric field strong enough to deflect an alpha particle, and the electrons are so lightweight they should be pushed aside effortlessly by the much heavier alpha particles. Even so there was scattering, then Rutherford and his colleagues decided to investigate this handful carefully.[29]

Between 1908 and 1913, Rutherford and his colleagues performed a series of experiments in which they bombarded thin foils of metal with alpha particles. They spotted alpha particles being deflected by angles greater than xc°. To explicate this, Rutherford proposed that the positive charge of the atom is not distributed throughout the atom's volume every bit Thomson believed, only is concentrated in a tiny nucleus at the center. Simply such an intense concentration of accuse could produce an electric field strong enough to deflect the alpha particles every bit observed.[29] Rutherford'south model is sometimes called the "planetary model".[30] Withal, Hantaro Nagaoka was quoted by Rutherford equally the first to suggest a planetary atom in 1904.[31] And planetary models had been suggested as early every bit 1897 such equally the 1 by Joseph Larmor.[32] Probably the primeval solar system model was constitute in an unpublished note by Ludwig Baronial Colding in 1854 whose idea was that atoms were analogous to planetary systems that rotate and cause magnetic polarity.[33]

First steps toward a quantum physical model of the atom

The planetary model of the cantlet had two significant shortcomings. The first is that, unlike planets orbiting a sun, electrons are charged particles. An accelerating electric charge is known to emit electromagnetic waves co-ordinate to the Larmor formula in classical electromagnetism. An orbiting charge should steadily lose energy and spiral toward the nucleus, colliding with it in a modest fraction of a 2nd. The 2nd problem was that the planetary model could not explicate the highly peaked emission and absorption spectra of atoms that were observed.

Quantum theory revolutionized physics at the beginning of the 20th century, when Max Planck and Albert Einstein postulated that lite energy is emitted or absorbed in detached amounts known as quanta (singular, quantum). This led to a serial of quantum atomic models such equally the quantum model of Arthur Erich Haas in 1910 and the 1912 John William Nicholson quantum atomic model that quantized angular momentum as h/2π.[34] [35] In 1913, Niels Bohr incorporated this idea into his Bohr model of the cantlet, in which an electron could merely orbit the nucleus in particular circular orbits with fixed angular momentum and free energy, its distance from the nucleus (i.e., their radii) being proportional to its energy.[36] Under this model an electron could non spiral into the nucleus considering it could non lose energy in a continuous manner; instead, it could simply make instantaneous "quantum leaps" between the fixed energy levels.[36] When this occurred, light was emitted or absorbed at a frequency proportional to the change in energy (hence the absorption and emission of calorie-free in discrete spectra).[36]

Bohr'due south model was not perfect. It could only predict the spectral lines of hydrogen; it couldn't predict those of multielectron atoms. Worse all the same, as spectrographic engineering improved, boosted spectral lines in hydrogen were observed which Bohr'south model couldn't explain. In 1916, Arnold Sommerfeld added elliptical orbits to the Bohr model to explain the extra emission lines, only this made the model very difficult to use, and it withal couldn't explain more circuitous atoms.

Discovery of isotopes

While experimenting with the products of radioactive decay, in 1913 radiochemist Frederick Soddy discovered that in that location appeared to be more than i element at each position on the periodic table.[37] The term isotope was coined by Margaret Todd equally a suitable name for these elements.

That same year, J. J. Thomson conducted an experiment in which he channeled a stream of neon ions through magnetic and electrical fields, striking a photographic plate at the other finish. He observed two glowing patches on the plate, which suggested two different deflection trajectories. Thomson concluded this was because some of the neon ions had a different mass.[38] The nature of this differing mass would after be explained by the discovery of neutrons in 1932.

Discovery of nuclear particles

In 1917 Rutherford bombarded nitrogen gas with alpha particles and observed hydrogen nuclei beingness emitted from the gas (Rutherford recognized these, considering he had previously obtained them bombarding hydrogen with alpha particles, and observing hydrogen nuclei in the products). Rutherford concluded that the hydrogen nuclei emerged from the nuclei of the nitrogen atoms themselves (in consequence, he had split a nitrogen).[39]

From his own work and the work of his students Bohr and Henry Moseley, Rutherford knew that the positive charge of any atom could always be equated to that of an integer number of hydrogen nuclei. This, coupled with the atomic mass of many elements existence roughly equivalent to an integer number of hydrogen atoms - then causeless to be the lightest particles - led him to conclude that hydrogen nuclei were singular particles and a basic constituent of all atomic nuclei. He named such particles protons. Further experimentation by Rutherford found that the nuclear mass of most atoms exceeded that of the protons it possessed; he speculated that this surplus mass was composed of previously-unknown neutrally charged particles, which were tentatively dubbed "neutrons".

In 1928, Walter Bothe observed that beryllium emitted a highly penetrating, electrically neutral radiation when bombarded with alpha particles. Information technology was later discovered that this radiation could knock hydrogen atoms out of paraffin wax. Initially it was idea to be high-energy gamma radiation, since gamma radiation had a similar result on electrons in metals, merely James Chadwick found that the ionization effect was as well strong for information technology to be due to electromagnetic radiation, so long as energy and momentum were conserved in the interaction. In 1932, Chadwick exposed various elements, such every bit hydrogen and nitrogen, to the mysterious "beryllium radiation", and by measuring the energies of the recoiling charged particles, he deduced that the radiations was really composed of electrically neutral particles which could not be massless like the gamma ray, but instead were required to take a mass similar to that of a proton. Chadwick now claimed these particles as Rutherford'southward neutrons.[40] For his discovery of the neutron, Chadwick received the Nobel Prize in 1935.

Quantum physical models of the atom

The five filled atomic orbitals of a neon atom separated and bundled in order of increasing energy from left to right, with the last three orbitals being equal in energy. Each orbital holds upwardly to two electrons, which well-nigh probably exist in the zones represented by the colored bubbling. Each electron is every bit nowadays in both orbital zones, shown hither by colour only to highlight the different wave phase.

In 1924, Louis de Broglie proposed that all moving particles—particularly subatomic particles such equally electrons—exhibit a degree of wave-like behavior. Erwin Schrödinger, fascinated by this idea, explored whether or non the movement of an electron in an atom could exist better explained as a wave rather than as a particle. Schrödinger's equation, published in 1926,[41] describes an electron every bit a wave function instead of as a indicate particle. This approach elegantly predicted many of the spectral phenomena that Bohr's model failed to explain. Although this concept was mathematically convenient, it was difficult to visualize, and faced opposition.[42] One of its critics, Max Built-in, proposed instead that Schrödinger's moving ridge function did not describe the concrete extent of an electron (similar a charge distribution in classical electromagnetism), but rather gave the probability that an electron would, when measured, exist found at a particular point.[43] This reconciled the ideas of wave-like and particle-like electrons: the behavior of an electron, or of whatsoever other subatomic entity, has both moving ridge-similar and particle-like aspects, and whether i attribute or the other is more apparent depends upon the situation.[44]

A event of describing electrons as waveforms is that information technology is mathematically impossible to simultaneously derive the position and momentum of an electron. This became known as the Heisenberg uncertainty principle after the theoretical physicist Werner Heisenberg, who first published a version of information technology in 1927.[45] (Heisenberg analyzed a idea experiment where ane attempts to measure an electron's position and momentum simultaneously. However, Heisenberg did non give precise mathematical definitions of what the "dubiety" in these measurements meant. The precise mathematical statement of the position-momentum uncertainty principle is due to Earle Hesse Kennard, Wolfgang Pauli, and Hermann Weyl.[46] [47]) This invalidated Bohr's model, with its neat, clearly divers round orbits. The mod model of the atom describes the positions of electrons in an atom in terms of probabilities. An electron can potentially exist found at any distance from the nucleus, but, depending on its energy level and angular momentum, exists more frequently in sure regions effectually the nucleus than others; this design is referred to every bit its atomic orbital. The orbitals come in a variety of shapes—sphere, dumbbell, torus, etc.—with the nucleus in the eye.[48] The shapes of atomic orbitals are constitute past solving the Schrödinger equation; however, analytic solutions of the Schrödinger equation are known for very few relatively unproblematic model Hamiltonians including the hydrogen cantlet and the dihydrogen cation. Fifty-fifty the helium atom—which contains just two electrons—has defied all attempts at a fully analytic treatment.

Run across also

  • Spectroscopy
  • History of molecular theory
  • Timeline of chemic element discoveries
  • Introduction to quantum mechanics
  • Kinetic theory of gases
  • Atomism
  • The Concrete Principles of the Quantum Theory

Footnotes

  1. ^ Pullman, Bernard (1998). The Atom in the History of Human Idea. Oxford, England: Oxford Academy Press. pp. 31–33. ISBN978-0-19-515040-7.
  2. ^ a b Kenny, Anthony (2004). Ancient Philosophy. A New History of Western Philosophy. Vol. 1. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. pp. 26–28. ISBN0-19-875273-3.
  3. ^ a b c d east f g Pyle, Andrew (2010). "Atoms and Atomism". In Grafton, Anthony; Most, Glenn West.; Settis, Salvatore (eds.). The Classical Tradition. Cambridge, Massachusetts and London, England: The Belknap Printing of Harvard University Printing. pp. 103–104. ISBN978-0-674-03572-0.
  4. ^ a b c d Cohen, Henri; Lefebvre, Claire, eds. (2017). Handbook of Categorization in Cognitive Science (2d ed.). Amsterdam, The Netherlands: Elsevier. p. 427. ISBN978-0-08-101107-2.
  5. ^ "Welcome to CK-12 Foundation | CK-12 Foundation".
  6. ^ Berryman, Sylvia, "Democritus", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Autumn 2008 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2008/entries/democritus
  7. ^ Weisstein, Eric W. "Lavoisier, Antoine (1743-1794)". scienceworld.wolfram.com. Retrieved 2009-08-01 .
  8. ^ "Law of definite proportions | chemistry". Encyclopedia Britannica . Retrieved 2020-09-03 .
  9. ^ Dalton (1817). A New System of Chemical Philosophy vol. 2, p. 36
  10. ^ Dalton (1817). A New System of Chemical Philosophy vol. 2, p. 28
  11. ^ Dalton (1817). A New Organisation of Chemical Philosophy vol. two, p. 281
  12. ^ Dalton, John. "On the Absorption of Gases by Water and Other Liquids", in Memoirs of the Literary and Philosophical Order of Manchester. 1803. Retrieved on August 29, 2007.
  13. ^ Grossman, Marking I. (2021-01-02). "John Dalton'south "Aha" Moment: the Origin of the Chemical Atomic Theory". Ambix. 68 (1): 49–71. doi:10.1080/00026980.2020.1868861. ISSN 0002-6980. PMID 33577439. S2CID 231909410.
  14. ^ "Thomas Thomson on Dalton's Atomic Hypothesis". www.chemteam.info . Retrieved 2021-02-20 .
  15. ^ Dalton, John (1808). A New System of Chemical Philosophy ... S. Russell. pp. 211–216.
  16. ^ Nicholson, William (1811). A Periodical of Natural Philosophy, Chemistry and the Arts. G. G. and J. Robinson. pp. 143–151.
  17. ^ Johnson, Chris. "Avogadro - his contribution to chemistry". Archived from the original on 2002-07-10. Retrieved 2009-08-01 .
  18. ^ Alan J. Rocke (1984). Chemical Atomism in the Nineteenth Century. Columbus: Ohio State University Printing.
  19. ^ Avogadro, Amedeo (1811). "Essay on a Style of Determining the Relative Masses of the Elementary Molecules of Bodies, and the Proportions in Which They Enter into These Compounds". Periodical de Physique. 73: 58–76.
  20. ^ Einstein, A. (1905). "Über dice von der molekularkinetischen Theorie der Wärme geforderte Bewegung von in ruhenden Flüssigkeiten suspendierten Teilchen" (PDF). Annalen der Physik. 322 (8): 549–560. Bibcode:1905AnP...322..549E. doi:10.1002/andp.19053220806. hdl:10915/2785.
  21. ^ See:
    • Maxwell, J.C. (1860) "Illustrations of the dynamical theory of gases. Part I. On the motions and collisions of perfectly elastic spheres," Philosophical Mag, 4th series, xix : 19–32.
    • Maxwell, J.C. (1860) "Illustrations of the dynamical theory of gases. Office 2. On the process of improvidence of two or more kinds of moving particles among one another," Philosophical Mag, 4th serial, twenty : 21–37.
  22. ^ Meet Wikipedia article on Gibbs
  23. ^ Navarro, Luis. "Gibbs, Einstein and the Foundations of Statistical Mechanics." Archive for History of Exact Sciences, vol. 53, no. two, Springer, 1998, pp. 147–lxxx, http://www.jstor.org/stable/41134058.
  24. ^ Stone, A. Douglas, Einstein and the quantum : the quest of the valiant Swabian, Princeton University Press, (2013). ISBN 978-0-691-13968-5 quoted from Folsing, Albert Einstein, 110.
  25. ^ Thomson, J. J. (1897). "Cathode rays" ([facsimile from Stephen Wright, Classical Scientific Papers, Physics (Mills and Boon, 1964)]). Philosophical Magazine. 44 (269): 293. doi:10.1080/14786449708621070.
  26. ^ Whittaker, E. T. (1951), A History of the Theories of Aether and Electricity. Vol 1, Nelson, London
  27. ^ Thomson, J. J. (1904). "On the Structure of the Atom: an Investigation of the Stability and Periods of Oscillation of a number of Corpuscles arranged at equal intervals effectually the Circumference of a Circumvolve; with Application of the Results to the Theory of Diminutive Construction". Philosophical Magazine. 7 (39): 237. doi:ten.1080/14786440409463107.
  28. ^ Kumar, Manjit, Quantum Einstein and Bohr Great Debate, Icon Books, 2009
  29. ^ a b Heilbron (2003). Ernest Rutheford and the Explosion of Atoms, pp. 64-68
  30. ^ "Rutherford model | Definition & Facts". Encyclopedia Britannica . Retrieved 23 August 2021.
  31. ^ Rutherford either knew the commodity or looked information technology up, for he cited it on the last page of his archetype paper, "The Scattering of a and b Particles by Thing and the Structure of the Atom," Phil. Mag., 21 (1911), 669.
  32. ^ Larmor, Joseph (1897), "On a Dynamical Theory of the Electric and Luminiferous Medium, Part 3, Relations with cloth media", Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, 190: 205–300, Bibcode:1897RSPTA.190..205L, doi:10.1098/rsta.1897.0020 "…that of the transmission of radiation across a medium permeated by molecules, each consisting of a system of electrons in steady orbital motion, and each capable of free oscillations about the steady state of motion with definite free periods coordinating to those of the planetary inequalities of the Solar System;"
  33. ^ Helge Kragh, Niels Bohr and the Breakthrough Atom: The Bohr Model of Diminutive Structure 1913–1925, 2012, Chap. 1, ISBN 9780199654987, Oxford Scholarship Online, doi:x.1093/acprof:oso/9780199654987.001.0001
  34. ^ J. W. Nicholson, Month. Not. Roy. Astr. Soc. lxxii. pp. 49,130, 677, 693, 729 (1912).
  35. ^ The Diminutive Theory of John William Nicholson, Russell McCormmach, Annal for History of Exact Sciences, Vol. iii, No. 2 (25.8.1966), pp. 160-184 (25 pages), Springer.
  36. ^ a b c Bohr, Niels (1913). "On the constitution of atoms and molecules" (PDF). Philosophical Magazine. 26 (153): 476–502. Bibcode:1913PMag...26..476B. doi:x.1080/14786441308634993.
  37. ^ "Frederick Soddy, The Nobel Prize in Chemical science 1921". Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2008-01-18 .
  38. ^ Thomson, J. J. (1913). "Rays of positive electricity". Proceedings of the Regal Guild. A 89 (607): i–20. Bibcode:1913RSPSA..89....1T. doi:10.1098/rspa.1913.0057. [as excerpted in Henry A. Boorse & Lloyd Motz, The World of the Cantlet, Vol. 1 (New York: Basic Books, 1966)]. Retrieved on August 29, 2007.
  39. ^ Rutherford, Ernest (1919). "Collisions of alpha Particles with Lite Atoms. IV. An Anomalous Upshot in Nitrogen". Philosophical Mag. 37 (222): 581. doi:x.1080/14786440608635919.
  40. ^ Chadwick, James (1932). "Possible Beingness of a Neutron" (PDF). Nature. 129 (3252): 312. Bibcode:1932Natur.129Q.312C. doi:10.1038/129312a0. S2CID 4076465.
  41. ^ Schrödinger, Erwin (1926). "Quantisation equally an Eigenvalue Problem". Annalen der Physik. 81 (eighteen): 109–139. Bibcode:1926AnP...386..109S. doi:x.1002/andp.19263861802.
  42. ^ Mahanti, Subodh. "Erwin Schrödinger: The Founder of Quantum Wave Mechanics". Archived from the original on 2009-04-17. Retrieved 2009-08-01 .
  43. ^ Mahanti, Subodh. "Max Born: Founder of Lattice Dynamics". Archived from the original on 2009-01-22. Retrieved 2009-08-01 .
  44. ^ Greiner, Walter (4 October 2000). "Quantum Mechanics: An Introduction". ISBN9783540674580 . Retrieved 2010-06-14 .
  45. ^ Heisenberg, Due west. (1927). "Über den anschaulichen Inhalt der quantentheoretischen Kinematik und Mechanik". Zeitschrift für Physik (in German language). 43 (3–4): 172–198. Bibcode:1927ZPhy...43..172H. doi:x.1007/BF01397280. S2CID 122763326.
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Bibliography

  • Andrew K. van Melsen (1960) [First published 1952]. From Atomos to Atom: The History of the Concept Cantlet. Translated by Henry J. Koren. Dover Publications. ISBN0-486-49584-1.
  • J. P. Millington (1906). John Dalton. J. G. Paring & Co. (London); Eastward. P. Dutton & Co. (New York).
  • Jaume Navarro (2012). A History of the Electron: J. J. and G. P. Thomson. Cambridge University Press. ISBN978-1-107-00522-viii.

Further reading

  • Bernard Pullman (1998) The Atom in the History of Human Idea, trans. by Axel Reisinger. Oxford Univ. Printing.
  • Eric Scerri (2007) The Periodic Table, Its Story and Its Significance, Oxford University Press, New York.
  • Charles Adolphe Wurtz (1881) The Atomic Theory, D. Appleton and Company, New York.
  • Alan J. Rocke (1984) Chemical Atomism in the Nineteenth Century: From Dalton to Cannizzaro, Ohio State University Press, Columbus (open access full text at http://digital.example.edu/islandora/object/ksl%3Ax633gj985).

External links

  • Atomism by S. Marker Cohen.
  • Atomic Theory - detailed information on atomic theory with respect to electrons and electricity.

annandscat1953.blogspot.com

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_theory

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